Psychology of Altruism and Morality :: essays papers

Psychology of Altruism and Morality The two competing theoretical frameworks that attempt to explain the development of morality are cognitive-behavioral and cognitive-developmental. The cognitive-behavioral approach is taken by Liebert, and the cognitive-developmental approach is taken by Kohlberg. Both sides have strong arguments that support their own theories and try to tear apart the opposing theory. The cognitive-developmental approach has been studied extensively by Lawrence Kohlberg. Through his studies using moral dilemmas, Kohlberg developed his six stages of moral development. In these stages, Kohlberg concentrates on the reasons why people act the way they do; not the way they think about their actions or what action they take, but the reasoning behind their actions. The six stages that Kohlberg defines are grouped into three levels, with two levels at each stage. They are grouped as follows: Level 1 - Preconventional / Pre Moral *Stage 1: Punishment & Obedience - Actions that are punished are wrong. *Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation - focus is on the self. How will my actions reward me? Level 2 - Conventional *Stage 3: People at stage three begin to value the respect of the opinion and values of other. *Stage 4: Law and Order - Appreciation for rules, laws, and regulations of society. Level 3 - Post Conventional *Stage 5: Social Contrast Legalistic Orientation *Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle These stages are important to Kohlberg’s four most general beliefs. One of Kohlberg’s first assertions is that people advance through these stages in an invariant sequence. Advancement through these stages occurs in order from 1 - 6, with no stages skipped, and there is no regression. Kohlberg’s second assertion is that people cannot comprehend reasoning more than one stage ahead of their current stage. Kohlberg also believes that people are attracted to higher stage reasoning because it is more adequate, and finally, stage movement is motivated by cognitive disequilibrium. The cognitive-developmental approach is supported by research done by Kohlberg and other researchers who have attempted to replicate Kohlberg’s findings. One study conducted by John Snarey and Joseph Reimer attempted to prove the cultural universality of Kohlberg’s stages. The study, conducted in Turkey, was a longitudinal study using ninety-two kibbutz-born Israeli’s. The results were consistent with Kohlberg’s studies done in both the United States and Turkey, making the cultural universality argument stronger. Contradicting the cognitive-developmental approach is the cognitive-

SNC Reaction Paper

What was it spent on? Who were the recipients? Investigations suggested that the money was used to pay bribes to unknown North African agents in order to sanction mufti-million dollar future projects. This was possibly done to maximize company revenue, but the deed is still questionable with Demise's grey past. The archbishop Of Milan, SST. Ambrose once said, â€Å"When in Rome, do as the Romans. † Does this translate to Zinc's actions in North Africa? Doing business in different parts of the world can be a difficult game because of varied cultural and professional differences.What may seem wrong in North America may be an everyday occurrence in another part of the world. Bribery is one such act. A bribe, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary is â€Å"money or favor given or promised in order to influence the judgment or conduct of a person in a position of trust†. From personal experience, in some countries, not paying a bribe or not â€Å"giving a gift' may pro long or delay work, and in some cases even create a roadblock and completely stop the project. In some countries, offering a bribe is legal while in others it is considered a felony.The question forever is, is bribery ethical? Ethics, in my opinion, are culture specific and, as the professor mentioned in class, time specific. Slavery, for example was an integral part of a perfectly normal society in ancient times but now is considered a heinous crime. Pierre Daytime bribed officials to influence their decision in choosing SYNC Laving for construction projects. But even after investigations, it is not known what this bribe was used for. Daytime and Ben Sass were also linked to illegal activities like money laundering with the controversial Miramar Godhead of Libya.Keeping in mind his past history and the act of bribery itself positions me to believe that Daytime acted unethically. I also believe that bribery, in any form, is morally wrong irrespective of where one does business. In t his case, Daytime, the board of directors, the agents and the officials in North Africa are the active agents. The shareholders, potential and current clients, the employees of SYNC Laving as well as their competitors are the passive agents. Let's analyses the ethical issues in this case using a few models.Virtue Based Moral Reasoning expects en to maximize certain virtues like honesty, integrity, fairness and transparency. Daytime in his actions exhibited dishonesty and dishonor by bribing and laundering money. These actions were unfair to the shareholder as they were and still are unaware about where their money was spent. Lack of transparency creates a loss of trust amongst employees and stake-holders as well. Demise's actions were, therefore, unethical. Next, let's look at it through a Communitarian's approach. This method stresses that contracts, implicit and explicit, should be respect and not breached under any resistance.Daytime had a fiduciary duty towards the corporation, which he breached as the company lost its reputation as a result of this bribery debacle. He had also signed an implicit contract with the employees of the organization which was breached when he paid no heed to company ethics before making his decisions. Falsifying accounts by using terms like â€Å"project consultancy costs† and â€Å"project commercial costs† for the money spent towards bribes is equivalent to lying to shareholders as these statements are finally sanctioned by the CEO. Thus we see that SYNC Laving and Daytime acted unethically on the basis of Communitarian's.However, if you look at the decision through a Consequentiality perspective, an approach where only the consequences of your actions matter, Daytime, while making this decision was actually right. He paid a small price (in the form of a bribe), which in turn would bring in business worth billions and increase the company's revenue. He believed that ends justified the means. However, after the en tire incident unfolded, SYNC Laving not only lost a lot of money through trials and fines, but also lost something more important, trust and reputation.Thus, I believe that this act was unethical even through a consequentiality approach. If Daytime was acting under a veil of ignorance, he would definitely not authorize these payments. SYNC Laving could have been a company that has lost out to a lucrative contract just because another company was willing to bribe their way to the contract. Here we see that through a Rawlins Liberalism approach, Daytime was unethical. According to Graham Tucker's theory, an ethical decision should positively answer all his five questions. Daytime and SYNC Lapin's board fails to answer these questions positively.Was their decision profitable? Definitely not. SYNC Lapin's profits reduced from $76 million to $67 million in the first quarter of 201 2 itself. Secondly, bribe giving is illegal in Canada which negatively answers his second question, is it le gal? He then goes on to ask if it is fair. If you look at this from their competitors perspective, their decision was unfair to the competitors who missed out on deals as they refused to pay bribes. This decision was also not right as this money was paid to unnamed and unknown recipients to influence the company's goals.Finally, it fails to positively answer if paying bribes ensures sustainable development. Such acts result in recurrence of ill doing which in turn can backfire on the corporation. Most successful organizations usually boast of having a clean slate and usually do not indulge in such acts. Bribery may be a quick fix but is definitely not a permanent solution. Informs CEO and my former boss, Nary Murphy once suggested, â€Å"If bribe giving, and not bribe taking, is made legal then the bribe giver shall indeed cooperate with the authorities to expose the bribe taker.This seems o be an interesting idea and think it should be implemented†. Such a policy will encour age victims to blow the whistle on bribe takers fearlessly and in turn help combat corruption. In my view, businesses can very well flourish even in the harshest situations. Informs is a great example; an organization which flourished ethically in an environment which was not very welcoming to entrepreneurs with a conscience. Their vision was not to just build a profitable organization, but a respectable one. In 1984, Informs imported a supercomputer and the customs official at the airport refused to clear it without a bribe.Any delay was unacceptable and the only alternative was to pay a customs duty of 135% and then appeal for a refund. Murphy borrowed money and paid the duty. He believes that at the end of the day, a clear conscience is the softest pillow on which you can lay down your head at night. Firmly believe that bribery is an evil which eventually leads to corrupt business and political environment. Even though it is viewed differently in different cultures, morally it st ill is wrong and unethical. I'd rather not do business in a market which enforces bribery than silence my scruples and indulge in a social evil.

A Brief Description of Non-Parametric Tests

Non-parametric Tests In contrast to parametric tests, non-parametric tests do not require any assumptions about the parameters or about the nature of population. It is because of this that these methods are sometimes referred to as the distribution free methods. Most of these methods, however, are based upon the weaker assumptions that observations are independent and that the variable under study is continuous with approximately symmetrical distribution. In addition to this, these methods do not require measurements as strong as that required by parametric methods.Most of the non- arametric tests are applicable to data measured in an ordinal or nominal scale. As opposed to this, the parametric tests are based on data measured at least in an interval scale. The measurements obtained on interval and ratio scale are also known as high level measurements. Level of measurement 1 . Nominal scale: This scale uses numbers or other symbols to identify the groups or classes to which various o bjects belong. These numbers or symbols constitute a nominal or classifying scale.For example, classification of individuals on the basis of sex (male, female) or on the basis of level of education (matric, senior secondary, raduate, post graduate), etc. This scale is the weakest of all the measurements. 2. Ordinal scale: This scale uses numbers to represent some kind of ordering or ranking of objects. However, the differences of numbers, used for ranking, don't have any meaning. For example, the top 4 students of class can be ranked as 1, 2, 3, 4, according to their marks in an examination. 3.Interval scale: This scale also uses numbers such that these can be ordered and their differences have a meaningful interpretation. 4. Ratio scale: A scale possessing all the properties of an interval scale along with a true zero point is called a ratio scale. It may be pointed out that a zero point in an interval scale is arbitrary. For example, freezing point of water is defined at 00 Celsiu s or 320 Fahrenheit, implying thereby that the zero on either scale is arbitrary and doesn't represent total absence of heat.In contrast to this, the measurement of distance, say in metres, is done on a ratio scale. The term ratio is used here because ratio comparisons are meaningful. For example, 100 kms of distance is four times larger than a distance of 25 kms while 1000F may not mean that it is twice as hot as SOOF. It should be noted here that a test that can be erformed on high level measurements can always be performed on ordinal or nominal measurements but not vice-versa.However, if along with the high level measurements the conditions of a parametric test are also met, the parametric test should invariably be used because this test is most powerful in the given circumstances. From the above, we conclude that a non-parametric test should be used when either the conditions about the parent population are not met or the level of measurements is inadequate for a parametric test . References: http://classofl . com/homework-help/statistics-homework-help/

Cognitive Behavioral

Cognitive Behavioral ers, it can be generally summarized that these factors have become integrally important for the needs of the contemporary applied psychology. However, another group of no less authoritative psychological luminaries fervently support the idea that the concepts of the case formulation and case evaluation are the issues which will determine the entire subsequent evolutional development of this field of contemporary psychology. With regard to the establishment of the private practice, the importance of these concepts should never be underestimated due to the following facts. First and foremost, despite all the criticism, the process of case formulation is indeed the most effective technique utilized for the determination of the diagnosis of the patient and the identification of these major deviations that should be subjected to the subsequent treatment. Moreover, in this context is should be additionally highlighted that the process of case formulation can be used for the needs of experience encapsulation. Since the individual cases and the ways the ailments of those cases were treated are summarized and collected in one study, the mentioned encapsulation can be used for the needs of the subsequent practice. The Role of the Therapist Therapist is known to be the individual specialist who eradicates various ailments diagnosed among the patients. The role played by him/her individually is immensely important for the needs of the contemporary medical practice in general and the proliferation of the CBT therapy in particular, since he/she is the major linking chain between the theory and the practice. Moreover, the concept of evaluation techniques is no less important, since this technique is also among the most contributive primarily due to the fact that since the methods of the disorders evaluation are gradually accumulated, processes and the inferences thereof are always made, more complicated cases that will be encountered in future will be diagnosed and cured with ease. Besides, this theory really facilitates the practicing community to identify the sources of distorted or dysfunctional way of thinking which are reviewed as the most fundamental grounds for the majority of the contemporary psychological disorders. The Importance of Assessment within the CBT Practice However effective the cognitive behavioral therapy may be, before the efficacy is proven for the international medical scholarly and practicing communities, the tactics and their efficiency should be independently tested. Alongside with the healing techniques, diagnosis formulation and effective patient treatment, the determination of the CBT efficiency with recourse to the assessment methods is becoming increasing important. It is a widely accepted fact that the methods of case formulation and case evaluation are among the most effective toolkits which are utilized to archive the practice of the practicing community. In this context, it should be accentuated that the practicing community always recourse to the above discussed methods. The methods of case formulation and case evaluation are ubiquitously reported to be among the most widely applied methods of data interchange among the psychologists and psychiatrists. These tools really help to accumulate, archive and effectively transmit information which relates to the negative automatic thoughts, which are regarded by the international scholarly community as one of the major sources of the mentally-related disorders and ailments, negative behavior and demeanor and somatic reactions of the patients and clients. More importantly, the discussed techniques are considered as being vitally important for the needs of formulation and concretization of the working hypothesis in each individual case of the detected deviations or dysfunctions of a patient or a client. The blueprint scheme is always completed on the basis of these assumptions and the theoretical inferences and practical evidences obtained as a result of the processes relating to the formulation and evaluation are necessarily applied within the course of the subsequent treatment of the targeted patients. As far as the treatments of the anxiety, panic disorder or depression are concerned, several specific important assumptions should be stressed. First and foremost, conventional algorithms of the problem formulation and evaluation, discussed in the previous abstracts are to be followed. In other words, it is integrally important for the needs of successful ailment detection and subsequent treatment that the problem is to systematically analyze and process in full accordance with the procedures of the cognitive theory model. The treatment of the most common panic disorders is peculiar in contrast to the rest of the frequently encountered disorders. First and foremost, the panic disorders treatment involves a multiple set of sedative and appeasement techniques designed to stabilize the state of the patient and to make him susceptible to the subsequent treatment.

Admission Essays Writing

Admission Essays Writing Admission Essays Writing Admission Essays Writing: The Introduction Admission essay writing is obviously included in the list of admission and exams to the MBA. Some MBA schools even require several essays, the quantity of which depends on the school. The essence of the MBA essay topics is usually the same every year. They do not usually change much: The Most Widespread Questions We offer you several of the admission essay questions. There are questions about your contribution to education and about your versatility. What reasons influenced your professional choice? Please, tell us about your plans for the professional future. Where do you want to get your MBA degree to achieve the desired objective? Tell us about your career. Why do you need the MBA degree? How will develop your career after receiving MBA degree? Tell us more about, what is your plan to do in the near future and in the future after receiving your MBA degree. How will education at MBA School contribute to the achievement of your goals? Briefly tell us about your professional achievements. Tell us details about your plans for the future and what caused you to get MBA degree at the university? What are your plans after receiving MBA degree? These are the most typical essay topics of every business school. You must clearly and precisely explain, why you need an MBA degree, and be able to prove it, writing an essay. Essay questions are usually divided into several parts. Most of them concern your past. Did you succeed in business today? Tell us, what influences your future. How will develop your career after receiving your MBA degree? What are your future plans? Admission Essay Help: Responsibility And Trust Why should you order custom essay writingat our company? We have well-organized and well-structured staff. Each employer is responsible for his own work. For example, the essay writer writes, professional editor edits, manager controls the process of performance of the custom essay order. Unlike other companies, where one person performs admission essay service, all our employees are divided into groups of specialization: economics, law, science, humanitarian, technical etc, and thus the organizational structure of the company is created. Secondly, in order to take a systemic approach to take and control essay orders a service administration was established. And thirdly, most important, is that an organized group of editors are responsible for the quality of the custom essay order. We are a reliable, experienced company! Contact us to convince of the best results and 100% guaranteed success! Read also: Much Ado About Nothing Coursework Marketing Coursework Self Critique Essay MLA Format Bibliography Critical Essay Essays on Patriotism

How to implement dual language programs in already established Dissertation

How to implement dual language programs in already established elementary schools - Dissertation Example This shortcoming has both local and far-reaching effects ranging from immigrants who try to make themselves understood to the business person who must negotiate with foreign governments (Firoz, Maghrabi & Lee 2002). Leon Panetta, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, stated, â€Å"To stay competitive in the global society, the U.S. needs more people with foreign language proficiency† (Picard, 2010, para. 3). Although the population of the United States has expanded through several generations of immigrants, command of foreign languages is not as prevalent in the United States as it is in other countries in the world. For Example, in the European Union, more than 50% of the population is functionally communicative in their native language plus one more (Hulstrand, 2008). Data from the 2007 American Community Survey captured information on language use by members of the US population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Less than half (42.7%) of 5- to 17-year-olds had English-only speaking ability. More (72.4%) 18- to 40-year-olds were English-only proficient, and even more (78.3%) of individuals ages 41 to 64 years were English-only proficient. Of those 65 years old or older, 32.6% spoke only English (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). There is a need to increase the numbers of students who are proficient in a second language in addition to English. Beginning with entrance into school at 5 years of age, and continuing through high school and beyond, students could benefit from a dual-language instruction (DLI) or two-way immersion (TWI) program. Lindholm-Leary and Borsato stated, â€Å"High school students who participated in the TWI program developed high levels of academic competence and motivation, ambitions to go to college, knowledge about how to apply to and get into college, and pride in bilingualism† (p. 1). Students who participate in TWI programs become proficient in more than one language into adulthood and are able to contribute a global society (Estrada, Gomez, & Ruiz-Escalante, 2009). Denver, Colorado, maintains a largely monolingual school district at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The district is considered to have a high-mobility population; students in this school district have moved more than once, and up to three times or more in any given school year (Denver Public Schools [DPS], 2010). The Colorado Student Assessment Program (CSAP), implemented in 2002 to address the standards imposed by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 ([NCLB] 2002), is the state-mandated test that all students from Grade 3 through Grade 12 must take. NCLB obligates every teacher to be highly qualified in their specialty subject(s), including reading. Fifth-grade English language learners (ELLs) and English language proficient (ELP students in largely monolingual public schools in Denver have consistently shown little to no progress in reading (DPS, 2010). What little progress has been reported by the CSAP since 2005—only a 9 percentage-point median growth for students across the district, regardless of ethnicity (Colorado Department of Education, 2011)—is cause for concern. From a starting level of 46 percentage points in 2005, students’ CSAP scores in reading have ris en and fallen unpredictably. In 2006, scores for progress in reading rose to 49 percentage points. In 2007, scores for progress in reading plummeted to 42 percentage points. Scores rose to 53 percentage points in 2008 and fell again to 50 percentage points in 2009. Finally in 2010, reading across the district rose again to 55 percentage points (DPS, 2010). The DPS district is not the only one in the state or any other state with high numbers of ELLs who are experiencing reading problems (Goldenberg,

Film Reflection Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Film Reflection - Movie Review Example This includes the search for a good career that is believed to be in the Canada, the good education system in Canada (Srabani M Tania Das G 2015) indicates, that the desire to have a sense of belonging which covers the political and cultural aspects of the theory is also one of the attractants. A good Canadian health system is also one of the things that led the women into the country. A desire to explore oneself and adventure was also cited as one of the reasons for migration. Some women desire to develop themselves by putting into practice their creative ideas and, as a result, migrate to Canada as they believe there is a good self-nurturing environment. The women face various challenges in Canada. This relates well to the post-colonial feminist theory that depicts the struggles for recognition for non-western women. The struggles for the three women include the long periods taken before being processed and accepted after the application for immigration. For example, it took 6-8 years before the application to be accepted. The first impression of Canada is contrary to their opinion and expectations. Most of them expected Canada to a colorful and developed country only to find it empty as compared to their homes. They also expected to settle into stable jobs within a short duration of time after arriving into the country. However, they find it difficult to get employment and some have to do jobs that not within their area of expertise so as to pay the bills despite the dissatisfaction it brings them. The women realized that not everything was as easy as they thought it would be. It depicts that within a span of one, over 280,000 individuals tend to move from their native land to get asylum in Canada. The film also describes the changes in education that they had to make once in Canada despite their earlier skills and past knowledge. This lack of recognition of their past qualifications shows discrimination of the women by the